{"hq_id":"hq-p-fod-000005","name":"Single-use plastic water bottles (PET)","category":{"primary":"food_contact","secondary":"beverage packaging","tags":["water bottle","plastic bottle","PET bottle","disposable water bottle","bottled water","single-use plastic"]},"product_tier":"FOD","overall_risk_level":"high","description":"Single-use polyethylene terephthalate (PET, resin code #1) bottles used for bottled water, sports drinks, juices, and carbonated beverages. PET is the most recycled plastic in the world and has a relatively favorable safety profile compared to PC or PVC. The primary concerns are antimony trioxide (used as a polymerization catalyst, present as a residue), acetaldehyde (a byproduct of PET manufacture), and microplastic/nanoparticle release — all of which increase with heat exposure.","synthesis":{"derived_risk_level":"moderate_to_high","synthesis_confidence":0.643,"synthesis_method":"compound_composition","context_used":"human_infant","context_source":"product_users","exposure_modifier":1.15,"vulnerability_escalated":true,"escalation_reason":"Infant exposure group","compounds_resolved":3,"compounds_total":3,"synthesis_date":"2026-05-09","synthesis_version":"1.2.0","methodology_note":"exposure_modifier and adjusted_magnitude are computed from ALETHEIA-calibrated heuristics (route × duration × frequency multipliers, clamped to [0.5, 1.4]). Multipliers are directionally informed by EPA Exposure Factors Handbook (2011) and CalEPA OEHHA but are not regulatory consensus. See /api/methodology for full disclosure."},"hazard_summary":{"sensitive_populations":"pregnant women, children","overall_risk":"high","primary_concerns":["Carcinogenicity concern (high): Acetaldehyde Antimony (from catalyst residue) and acetaldehyde migrate into bottled water, especially when bottles are stored at elevated temperatures (car, warehouse, direct sun)."],"exposure_routes":"direct oral ingestion"},"exposure":{"routes":["dermal"],"contact_types":["oral_direct"],"users":["adult","child","infant","pregnant"],"duration":"momentary","frequency":"daily","scenarios":["Incidental mouthing or hand-to-mouth transfer by children","Exposure during pregnancy with potential fetal transfer"],"notes":"Exposure is direct ingestion. Key risk multipliers: (1) storage at elevated temperatures — antimony and acetaldehyde migration increase significantly above 22°C; leaving bottles in a hot car is a documented high-risk scenario; (2) reusing single-use PET bottles amplifies microplastic shedding; (3) bottled water studies show particle counts in the hundreds of thousands per liter from PET bottles."},"consumer_guidance":{"red_flags":[{"indicator":"Bottled water stored in a car, warehouse, or direct sunlight","meaning":"Elevated temperature accelerates antimony trioxide and acetaldehyde migration from PET into water. Studies show antimony levels 2–90× higher in heat-exposed PET bottles vs. normal storage.","action":"Store bottled water in cool, dark conditions. Do not leave in a hot car."},{"indicator":"Reusing single-use PET bottles","meaning":"Single-use PET bottles degrade with each use — physical wear, washing, and temperature cycles increase microplastic and chemical release. The narrow neck makes proper cleaning difficult.","action":"Use a dedicated reusable bottle (stainless, glass, or high-quality PP). Single-use PET bottles are not designed for repeated use."},{"indicator":"Bottled water stored long-term","meaning":"Even at room temperature, antimony migration is time-dependent. Bottles near or past expiration date (typically 2 years) have had more cumulative migration time.","action":"Consume bottled water within a reasonable timeframe; store fresh stock in rotation."}],"green_flags":[{"indicator":"Stainless steel or glass beverage container","meaning":"No polymer contact surface; no migration concern.","verification":"Visual confirmation of material."}],"what_to_ask":[{"question":"How have these bottles been stored before I bought them?","why_it_matters":"Warehouse and truck transport conditions vary widely. Heat exposure during distribution is undisclosed but can significantly affect water quality.","good_answer":"Temperature-controlled distribution chain (rare in practice for bottled water).","bad_answer":"No supply chain temperature data available."}],"alternatives":[{"name":"Reusable stainless steel water bottles","notes":"Durable, non-leaching, eliminates single-use plastic waste"},{"name":"Glass water bottles with protective sleeve","notes":"Inert material prevents chemical leaching; fully recyclable"},{"name":"BPA-free polypropylene (#5) reusable bottles","notes":"More durable than single-use PET; safer for repeated use"}],"notes":null},"regulatory":{"applicable_regulations":[{"jurisdiction":"EU","regulation":"EU Regulation 10/2011 — SML for antimony in PET food contact","citation":null,"requirements":"Specific Migration Limit (SML) for antimony from PET: 0.04 mg/kg food. Migration studies generally show compliance under normal conditions.","compliance_status":null,"effective_date":null,"enforcing_agency":null,"penalties":null,"source_ref":"src_004"},{"jurisdiction":"USA","regulation":"FDA 21 CFR 177.1630 — PET for food contact","citation":null,"requirements":"PET approved for food contact including beverages. No specific regulatory limit for antimony migration in US.","compliance_status":null,"effective_date":null,"enforcing_agency":null,"penalties":null,"source_ref":"src_005"}],"certifications":[{"name":"FDA 21 CFR","issuer":"FDA","standard":"21 CFR Parts 170-199","scope":"Food contact substances, indirect food additives, migration limits"},{"name":"EU 10/2011","issuer":"European Commission","standard":"Regulation (EU) No 10/2011","scope":"Plastic materials intended to come into contact with food"},{"name":"NSF/ANSI 51","issuer":"NSF International","standard":"NSF/ANSI 51 Food Equipment Materials","scope":"Materials used in commercial food equipment"}],"labeling":{"required_disclosures":[],"prop65_warning":{"required":null,"chemicals":[],"endpoint":null,"notes":null},"ghs_labeling":{"required":null,"signal_word":null,"pictograms":[],"hazard_statements":[],"notes":null},"hidden_ingredients":{"trade_secret_protected":null,"categories_hidden":[],"estimated_count":null,"known_concerns":null,"notes":null},"notes":null},"recalls":[],"regulatory_gap":null,"notes":null},"lifecycle":{"recyclable":true,"disposal_guidance":"Recycle by resin code if marked; check local program; food-soiled items may not be accepted","hazardous_waste":false,"expected_lifespan":"1-3_years"},"formulation":{"form":"solid","key_ingredients":[{"hq_id":"hq-c-org-001116","name":"PET resin (Polyethylene terephthalate)","role":"base_material","concentration_pct":"95-98"},{"hq_id":"hq-c-org-000028","name":"Acetaldehyde","role":"additive","concentration_pct":"trace"},{"hq_id":"hq-c-ino-000161","name":"Antimony trioxide","role":"additive","concentration_pct":"trace"}],"certifications":[]},"materials":{"common":[{"material_id":"hq-m-str-000002","material_name":"PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) — resin code #1","component":"bottle body","prevalence":"very_common","notes":"PET is the exclusive material for single-use bottled water and beverage bottles. The polymer itself is considered food-safe under normal storage conditions. The residual antimony trioxide catalyst and acetaldehyde off-products are the documented migration concerns."}],"concerning":[{"material_id":"hq-m-str-000002","material_name":"PET bottle","concern":"Antimony (from catalyst residue) and acetaldehyde migrate into bottled water, especially when bottles are stored at elevated temperatures (car, warehouse, direct sun). Nanoparticle/microplastic release from PET bottles into beverages has been documented; studies report hundreds of thousands to millions of particles per liter in bottled water.","compounds_of_concern":["hq-c-ino-000027","hq-c-org-000028"],"source_refs":["src_001","src_002","src_003"]}],"preferred":[{"material_id":"hq-m-str-000014","material_name":"Stainless steel insulated bottles","why_preferred":"No polymer; no migration; no microplastics; reusable; long-lasting.","tradeoffs":"Higher upfront cost; heavier than plastic; not transparent; requires washing."},{"material_id":null,"material_name":"Glass bottles","why_preferred":"Inert; no migration; reusable; visually clear.","tradeoffs":"Breakable; heavy; inconvenient for sports/travel."},{"material_id":"hq-m-str-000005","material_name":"PP reusable water bottles","why_preferred":"No BPA; no antimony catalyst; lower migration risk than PET. Lighter than stainless steel.","tradeoffs":"Plastic still sheds microparticles over time; less durable than stainless."}]},"compound_composition":[{"hq_id":"hq-c-ino-000027","compound_name":"Antimony","role":"compound_of_concern","typical_concentration":null},{"hq_id":"hq-c-org-000028","compound_name":"Acetaldehyde","role":"compound_of_concern","typical_concentration":null},{"hq_id":"hq-c-ino-000042","compound_name":"Antimony trioxide (FR synergist)","role":"additive","typical_concentration":null}],"identifiers":{"common_names":["single-use plastic water bottles","single-use plastic water bottle"],"aliases":[],"manufacturer":null,"brands":[]},"brand_examples":[{"brand":"Bottled water (Nestlé brands)","manufacturer":"Nestlé Waters","market_position":"mass_market","notable":"Single-use plastic bottled water; ubiquitous"},{"brand":"Coca-Cola (Dasani/Sprite bottles)","manufacturer":"The Coca-Cola Company","market_position":"mass_market","notable":"Mass-market beverage plastic bottles"},{"brand":"Hydro Flask","manufacturer":"Helen of Troy","market_position":"premium","notable":"Stainless steel insulated reusable bottles"},{"brand":"S'well","manufacturer":"S'well","market_position":"premium","notable":"Premium designer reusable water bottles"},{"brand":"Klean Kanteen","manufacturer":"Klean Kanteen","market_position":"premium","notable":"Stainless steel eco-friendly water bottles"}],"brand_examples_disclaimer":"Representative branded products of this category. Concerning ingredients listed in materials.concerning[] apply to the category, not necessarily to every named brand. Specific formulations vary by SKU and may have changed since this record was written; consult the brand's current ingredient label before drawing brand-level conclusions.","sources":[{"id":"src_001","type":"journal","title":"Antimony leaching from PET bottles into mineral water","url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.07.048","accessed":"2026-03-08","year":2006,"notes":"Westerhoff et al.; Water Research; antimony migration from PET bottles — temperature dependence documented"},{"id":"src_002","type":"journal","title":"Microplastics in bottled water","url":"https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02070","accessed":"2026-03-08","year":2019,"notes":"Schymanski et al.; peer-reviewed study documenting microplastic particle counts in commercial bottled water; PET bottles showed highest concentrations"},{"id":"src_003","type":"journal","title":"250,000 plastic particles per liter detected in bottled water","url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2300582121","accessed":"2026-03-08","year":2024,"notes":"Columbia University/Pew Research; PNAS; nanoparticle analysis of bottled water showing hundreds of thousands of particles per liter including PET nanoparticles"},{"id":"src_004","type":"efsa","title":"EU Regulation 10/2011 Annex I — Specific Migration Limits","url":"https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011R0010","accessed":"2026-03-08","year":2011,"notes":"EU SML for antimony from PET food contact materials: 0.04 mg/kg"},{"id":"src_005","type":"fda","title":"FDA Inventory of Effective Food Contact Substance (FCS) Notifications — PET","url":"https://www.fda.gov/food/packaging-food-contact-substances-fcs/inventory-effective-food-contact-substances-fcs-notifications","accessed":"2026-03-08","year":2021,"notes":"FDA approval framework for PET in food contact applications"}],"meta":{"schema_version":"4.0.0","last_updated":"2026-03-25","timestamp":"2026-05-13T22:21:06.524Z"}}